REQUIRED COMPETENCIES IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION STUDY PROGRAMS

and analytical thinking and synthesizing ideas 9235.50


Introduction
The concept of quality in higher education has been drawing att ention of all interested parties in the education sector over the last few decades (Tasopoulou and Tsiotras, 2017).Both universities and employers, with the renewal of higher education programs (as a consequence of the Bologna process), gave special emphasis to competencies.A competence based approach could be considered as an att empt to make higher education institutions more standardized, comparable, accountable and cost-eff ective (Želvys and Akzholov, 2016).This raises the question of what competencies are, and which, from the perspective of employers, provide the expected 'standardized' qualifi cations.There are two views of 'examining' competencies: examining competencies in actual work practice and examining competencies in educational programs.Despite the diff erent defi nitions of the concept of competencies in work and competencies in educational programs, the idea is that the study programs should primarily develop those competencies that the working environment recognizes as important.Despite the large variety of defi nitions of the concept of competency, all competency involves knowledge, procedure and att itudes combined towards one goal, head knowledge (understanding), know-how (skills, abilities, aptitudes and capabilities), knowing how to be (att itudes), knowing what to be like (beliefs and values), and being able to do (means and resources) (Martínez, Moreno and Brage, 2014).
Higher education programs in the fi eld of public administration must provide not only discipline-specifi c fundamental knowledge but also the general competencies required by the labor market.In the context of our research, two research questions were examined: -Which competencies do employers expect from public administration graduates?-Are diff erent competencies expected for positions requiring a diff erent level of education (undergraduate or graduate degree)?
In our research, we wanted to contribute to the literature on several points.The aim of the research was to evaluate the required competencies for a specifi c academic fi eld (public administration) from the employers' perception.At the same time, the diff erence between the required competencies according to the study degree and workplace was examined and, further, the importance of specifi c competencies against general ones were evaluated.In the fi eld of public administration, in literature, there are a few studies on competencies determined by employers.For example Martínez, Moreno and Brage (2014) presented how the civil servants evaluated some general competencies required for Spanish public administration.Some other research discusses or evaluates selected competencies.Van Jaarsveldt and Wessels (2015) evaluated the importance and provision of ICT competencies in the public administration curricula in South Africa, and Awortwi (2010) presented the importance of selected competencies for the success of public administration reforms.A general overview of the diff erent standards and connected competencies in public administration education is presented in the book edited by Rosenbaum (2015).
The following section starts with a literature review on the determination of competencies in higher education.The next section defi nes the competencies collected from the diff erent sources and continues by presenting the research methodology and results.In conclusion, the importance of the fi ndings of the study is presented.

The acquisition of competencies in higher education
Several authors suggest that there has been limited academic research into the relationship between higher education institutions and organizations with regard to competencies that are linked to placements or a study degree or academic discipline (Frasquet, Calderón and Cervera, 2012;Plewa and Quester, 2007).Nevertheless there are also several studies that include the opinions of professionals or employers on the required competencies in diff erent disciplines (Frasquet,   .In most cases, studies highlighted the increasing importance of general knowledge and competencies and the general competencies seem to be even more important than specifi c ones (Brown and Smetherham, 2006;Azevedo et al., 2012;European Commission, 2010).On the other hand, Jurše and Tominc (2008) and, for some specializations, the European Commission (2010) found that professional competencies are slightly more elevated than general competencies.
According to diff erent research (Kuijpers and Meijers, 2012; Kuijpers and Scheerens, 2006; Savickas, 2000;Giddens, 1991), the individual is expected to demonstrate increasing self-directedness, both on the labor market and in society as a whole.As a result of the trend, diff erent authors pointed out the importance of changing teaching methods (Kuijpers, Schyns and Scheerens, 2006;Winterton, 2009 In the workplace, we use our competencies to perform a variety of behaviors and activities, which in turn generate outputs (products and services) that we provide to others.It is the quality of these outputs and the reactions of those who receive them that lead to results with positive, negative or neutral consequences for the organizations: the people who work there and its suppliers, shareholders, clients and customers (Picket, 1998, p. 103).The identifi cation and assessment of competencies, as well as the development of competency-based management frameworks to support activities such as 'gap analysis', recruitment, learning and other key human resource processes, all refl ect an acknowledgement by organizations that their workforce is key to their success in the modern workplace (Bonder, Bouchard and Bellemare, 2011, p. 2).

Determination of the set of competencies
The tendency for the most qualifi ed workforce in the public administration requires competent graduates.The defi nitions of which competencies are involved are numerous and varied.Many universities ensure the adequacy of competencies in their study programs and try to meet higher standards which are defi ned diff erently, either as requirements for the acquisition of sectorial accreditations or in the form of recommendations of the authority in the fi eld.For this reason, we decided to use a long list of general competencies that usually, in other research, give a more comprehensive evaluation and bett er contribute to public administration studies.In order to determine the set of competencies, the competencies from diff erent sources were used: -competencies highlighted as important by the projects to date and peer associations (TUNING: project which has developed into a process, an approach to (re)designing, developing, implementing, evaluating and enhancing quality of fi rst, second and third cycle degree programs, EAPAA: The results of the Tuning project represent one of the starting points of our research, serving in particular as a starting point for compiling a set of competencies.Connecting over 100 European universities, the project is aimed at developing concrete suggestions for implementing the Bologna process at the level of higher education institutions and individual subject fi elds.Tuning (2016) has designed a methodology for the (re)shaping, development, introduction and evaluation of study programs for each of the three Bologna cycles.When it comes to the subject fi elds, one of the fi ve sets selected was the fi eld of generic and subject-specifi c competencies.Tuning distinguishes between three forms of generic competencies: -instrumental or applicable competencies: cognitive, methodological, technological and linguistic abilities; -interpersonal competencies: the abilities of an individual, such as the ability to behave in society and to cooperate; and -systemic competencies: skills and abilities that concern entire systems (a combination of understanding, susceptibility, knowledge and the necessary previously obtained knowledge and interpersonal competencies).
In order to determine the most important generic competencies for each academic fi eld, an extensive consultation with graduates, employers and academic staff was organized in the fi rst stage of the Tuning project.The set of the most suitable generic competencies diff ered somewhat from subject fi eld to subject fi eld, but the majority of the competencies were relatively similar.Typical academic competencies such as the skills of analysis, synthesis, learning and problem-solving were identifi ed as the most important in all fi elds.Other generic competencies such as the skill of applying knowledge in practice, the skill of adapting to new situations, the concern for quality, the ability to manage information, the skill of independent work, the skill of teamwork, the skill of organization, spoken and writt en communication in the mother tongue and interpersonal skills were described mainly by graduates and employers as highly important for employability.Graduates and employers also found that some of the above competencies are more useful and bett er developed than others.They highlighted the fact that more att ention should be devoted to a specifi c number of generic competencies to ensure that students are bett er prepared for their future positions.The results of this extensive discussion were presented in the project report after the fi rst stage (Gonzales and Wagenaar, 2003;Gonzales and Wagenaar, 2005).
'The aim of the Tuning project was to contribute to the main objectives of the Bologna process by the transformation of traditional degrees into bachelor and master degrees and the reconstruction of the logic of their underlying study programs.Tuning aimed to implement the Bologna process at a university level and concentrated on transparency and the development of a common language in the description of HE programs, not least to enhance comparability and to foster their international recognition' (Lokhoff et al., 2010, p. 11).
However, still more important for our research is the Tuning-PA project, which is inspired by the Tuning Project.Tuning-PA, which was carried out under the European Association for Public Administration Accreditation (EAPAA) aimed to arrive at a set of competencies that are relevant for Public Administration degree programs in Europe, and that can be used by programs to articulate their specifi c aims and objectives.In this project, a set of 31 generic competencies (Tuning Generic Competencies) where developed and tested (in the sense of their relevance for academic jobs for graduates and realization in certain degree programs) in more than 10 disciplines and in more than 15 countries through questionnaires for employers, graduates and academics (Reichard and van der Krogt, 2014).
In the area of improving the quality of public administration education, there is, in addition to the EAPAA 'covering' the European space, another important institution in the Network of Schools of Public Policy, Aff airs and Administration (NASPAA).In the accreditation procedure for education in public administration, the NASPAA covers various competence aspects.The majority of the information regarding the competencies required under the NASPAA standard can be gleaned from the provisions of Standard 5 (Standard 5 Matching Operations with the Mission: Student Learning).The required knowledge includes fi ve areas of abilities (NASPAA, 2014): -for management and governance in the public sector; -for cooperation and active contribution to policy-making; -for analysis, synthesis, critical thinking, problem-solving and decision-making; -for articulating and applying public service visions; and -for communicating and interacting with diff erent profi les of associates and citizens.
In addition to the generic competencies, the NASPAA also requires the formation of specifi c competencies that refl ect the environment or orientation of the educational institution.This may include knowledge of local government, non-profi t administration, budget, fi scal policy and analysis, etc.Similar to the IASIA, ICAPA accreditation (ICAPA is the International Commission on the Accreditation of Public Administration Education and Training Programs) expects several generic competencies from studies in public administration, such as professional competence regarding values, ethical behavior, knowledge, respect for life, transparency, accountability, recognition of global interdependence, analytical and critical thinking, dealing with complexity and uncertainty, etc. (ICAPA Accreditation, 2008).
The second part of the study of competencies includes the competencies of study programs.The set of study programs taken into account when collecting competencies was assembled on the basis of publicly available information from the faculty web pages.Study programs were selected from the list of EAPAA, NASPAA and IASIA accredited programs.At the same time, an overview of some other programs (totaling 12) through general internet searches using keywords such as 'Administrative Science', 'Public Administration', 'Public Management' and 'Public Policy' was performed.The focus was mainly on European higher education institutions but also included some US and Canadian universities in the set for comparison.The main focus was on study programs whose contents place them at the very top of public policy and public governance research and development 1 .In total the competencies of 49 fi rst and graduate programs were examined.Study programs place considerable emphasis on developing competencies for the development and independence of students in analyzing, problem-solving and fi nding practical solutions.The study programs at most higher education institutions give graduates expert competencies and a broad understanding of public administration; graduates are able to defi ne public sector issues, perform quantitative and qualitative data analyses, develop and provide creative solutions and introduce implementation and ethical measures.Some competencies appear in all international study programs (e.g. the ability to analyze, an understanding of PA operation, research work, writt en and spoken communication, etc.).
Study program competencies at the individual cycle/level of education are entirely comparable and there are no major deviations.However, considerable diff erences exist in the vertical cycle of education.For example, undergraduate study programs (1st cycle study programs according to the Bologna process) give students general PA knowledge with a certain level of detail.Competencies common in undergraduate study programs include a knowledge of legal, environmental and ethical issues in individual fi elds, an understanding of PA tradition and the main related theories, the ability to analyze public opinion and form public policies, the ability of negotiation, research, discussion, rhetoric, listening, confl ict situation management, etc.In addition to in-depth theoretical knowledge, graduate programs (2nd cycle study programs according to the Bologna process) also provide other competencies, particularly problem-solving, complex analysis, the use of research methods, etc.
An important aspect in determining the desired (necessary, required) competencies are the competencies arising from the concrete nature of work.This is the third part of the study of competencies.In the studied case, this primarily means competencies arising from the descriptions of typical offi cial positions in Slovenian public administration and selected typical Slovenian Local Communities (according to the number of employees).Based on this, two analyses were prepared: an analysis of the document entitled 'Descriptions of Typical Offi cial Positions' and an analysis of typical offi cial positions based on the Systemization of selected Individual Local Communities.In both analyses of typical offi cial positions, we included only the positions open to graduates of PA study programs: offi cial titles in public administration, local community administrations and other state authorities, positions in public agencies, public funds, other public institutes, public economic institutes and other budget users and related positions.The results of both analyses were combined into a common document that solely included positions where a fi rst or graduate degree is required.In the fi rst stage of the analysis, a list of the tasks (including knowledge and skills) required for each offi cial position was prepared.Having analyzed the typical tasks (e.g., managing and coordinating the work of the state authority employees, preparing general acts and other expert and organizational material and instructions from the state authority, etc.), in the second stage, a list was compiled with the competencies necessary for performing these tasks.The analysis of the tasks and the set of necessary competencies show that the typical competencies are related to the following: -the ability to organize mutual cooperation, coordinate internal organizational units and cooperate with other authorities; -the ability to participate in developing systemic solutions and other material of the highest complexity; -the ability to independently prepare demanding analyses, development projects, information, reports and other complex material; -the ability to manage and make decisions in demanding administrative procedures; -the ability to manage the most demanding administrative procedures; -the ability to communicate; -the ability to lead people and teams; and -the ability to ensure the development of the organization.
The study of all the mentioned sources of competencies (study programs, accredited programs, peer associations, systematizations) was a base for determining the list of competencies analyzed in our research.

Methodology
Based on the list of competencies from the above-mentioned sources, a set of competencies that we wanted to verify with potential employers was created.The set comprised over 1,600 competencies (including skills, desirable behaviors and knowledge), of which about 290 were acquired from theoretical contributions (TUNING (Tuning,  When compiling the common set of competencies, all the related competencies were combined into a single competency.If for instance, a description of a position of employment required the ability to conduct police control, tax control, etc., the competence was determined as 'the ability to conduct control'.Thus, competencies from diff erent sets were combined into logical units.The competencies that appeared in only a single set were preserved and not combined into units.The combining was mainly possible with generic and general competencies.The subject-specifi c competencies were related to specifi c abilities and mostly to specifi c positions requiring specifi c knowledge.In order to avoid an excessive set of specifi c competencies, thus reducing the possibility of accurately completed surveys, specifi c competencies were included in the survey by giving the respondents the option to evaluate the importance of knowledge in the areas taught in the public administration programs.These areas include economics, management, HR management, law, public policies and finally information systems and web portals.Using this method, a set of 55 generic or general competencies were compliant and, additionally, six areas were determined. Based on the set of competencies, the survey questionnaire was prepared.The questionnaire included closed-ended questions, while the fi nal two questions were open-ended (the number of employees in the institution and the respondents' general opinion on competencies).The fi rst two questions related to the determination of the type of position (study degree/cycle of education and type of job).The respondents chose from a set of education and employment options.This was followed by an evaluation of the competencies from 1 (I disagree completely) to 5 (I agree completely).The respondents were asked to assess the skills and abilities that an individual, performing the same work as the participant, should have in order to be described as an ideal employee.This was followed by demographic questions on the age, gender and the institution of employment.
To conduct the survey, Google Survey was used.The link to the survey was sent to all the addresses of institutions in the public sector (to the main offi ce or to the HR offi ce, with a request to distribute it among the employees who are either experts in the fi eld or HR experts).The survey was conducted from December 2014 to May 2015.There were 343 responses received.

Research results
The average assessments of the importance of individual competencies according to the position of an employee are analyzed in three ways: together for 1 and 2 cycle degrees, and separately for undergraduate and graduate degrees.The average assessment of each competence based on all the participant responses showed (Table 1) that the competencies related to ethics and ethical behavior were assessed the highest.The competency of communicating in the mother tongue was also assessed very high.The lowest average assessment was given to competencies related to specifi c areas or knowledge, communication in a foreign language and working in an international environment.The highest rated competence was 'Is respectful to his/her associates' (4.75), the lowest one 'Needs knowledge in the fi eld of public policy-making' (3.42).The diff erence between the highest and the lowest rated competence is 1.33.Table 1 shows the highest (with an average grade of the maximum to -10% diff erence) and the lowest ranked (with an average grade of the minimum to + 10% diff erence) average assessments of competencies.Next, we wanted to see how the competence assessments diff ered based on the cycle of education.Since public administration programs educate students for positions that require an undergraduate or graduate degree in Public Administration, respondents with a secondary school education were excluded.This means that 15 responses were excluded from the survey.114 respondents have (had) an undergraduate de-gree, while 213 respondents have (had) a graduate degree or higher.The distinction between degrees is important in terms of research since employment at a particular workplace (thus also performing diff erent levels of work tasks) depends on the cycle of completed education.
The highest evaluated competencies for each cycle of study are shown separately for each group in the fi gure below (Figure 1).The results show that the highest evaluated competencies for both cycles of study are similar, though there are diff erences in the average assessment of competencies.The distribution of competencies according to rank is quite similar.This applies both to those best rated and to the overall range of competencies.Among the bestranked competencies, according to rank (Figure 2), the greatest diff erence in competency rank is 'Is able to act ethically and make ethical decisions' (rank 1 among competencies of graduate study programs and rank 10 among competencies of undergraduate study programs) and 'The capacity to work independently' (rank 7 among competencies of undergraduate study programs and rank 14 among competencies of graduate study programs).An analysis of the incidence of Tuning-PA competencies (31 competencies) in terms of the rank of researched competencies (from 1 to 61) was also performed.Tuning-PA competencies have been chosen because they are the most widespread competencies in higher education programs in the European area.The competencies studied in the research were divided into four groups according to the range.In the fi rst group of competencies (rank 1-15), there are only 5 Tuning-PA competencies present; in the second group (rank 16-30) there are 9; in the third (rank 31-45) there are 10; and in the fourth (rank 46-61) 7 Tuning-PA competencies are present.Among the 15 most important competencies, only the following 5 Tuning-PA competencies are listed: ability to act on the basis of ethical reasoning, ability to communicate both orally and through the writt en word in the fi rst language, make reasoned decisions, determination and perseverance in the given tasks and responsibilities taken and the ability to work autonomously.Thus, among the 15 most important competencies in the area of public administration education, respondents rank only 5 tuning competencies and 10 competencies formed on the basis of other sources already mentioned.
For the competencies assessed by both groups of respondents (undergraduate and graduate degree) a Mann-Whitney test was conducted to confi rm or deny the hypothesis that the answers diff er between the two groups.The test showed that there were only fi ve competencies where the answers diff ered.These competencies were assessed higher by the respondents with a higher level of education (p≤0.000).These competencies are presented in the next table (Table 2).They are connected to the more demanding positions of employment since they include strategic thinking, anal-ysis, evaluation and the assessment of associates.In addition, it is evident from the responses that people with a higher education who also hold higher positions give a higher assessment of the importance of ethical behavior, although this is a competence already highly assessed by all respondents.The assessment of specifi c competencies was not statistically diff erent between both groups; nevertheless, the knowledge in the fi eld of economics, management, human resource management and policy-making were evaluated higher for higher positions in public administration, while specifi c competencies in the fi eld of public sector regulation and e-government were evaluated lower.
The other correlation tests, such as the infl uence of gender, age, the size of the institution and the type of institution did not show statistically proven correlations.This is in accordance with the second research question that the position of the employee is the determining factor for the required competency.

Discussion
The study results demonstrate the suitability (importance) of the listed competencies in the PA education programs since they were all assessed very highly.It is interesting that virtually all the competencies received a higher average assessment (the competence is expected to be bett er developed) in graduates with the exception of three (knows the organization and operation of public administration, needs knowledge in the fi eld of legal acts (e.g.General Administrative Procedure Act, rules, etc.), and needs knowledge in the fi eld of web portal use (e-administration, etc.).Comparison of the presented research with some other research showed several similarities.Martínez, Moreno and Brage (2014) found that the most relevant competencies are self-confi dence and self-assurance, communication, and teamwork, which is in accordance with the presented research, where communication and teamwork were also highly evaluated.Clark and Pal (2011, p. 961) highlights value-based behavior and the role that ethical and moral frameworks play in public administration and public policy.But they warn that 'most of the competences we teach are aimed at improving knowledge-based action and involve the acquisition of concepts, techniques, and facts'.Nevertheless, ethical behavior prevails in our research.This can be partly linked to recent political 'scandals' in Slovenia and in the EU, which could infl uence the opinion of the surveyed civil servants.
The results of the research are somewhat surprising in the case of the lowest assessed competencies.These are related to the ability to work in the international environment, knowledge in the fi eld of public policy making and business economics, the ability to engage in entrepreneurial activity, leadership, management and control in public administration.In some other studies these competencies or competencies that are more directly related to leadership, management and/or public governance are more exposed (Forgues-Savage and Wong, 2017; Shevchenko, 2016; Melnikova, 2013; Clark and Pal, 2011).
According to the highest assessed competencies, the main diff erence in the perception of competency seems to be in the relationship between generic and specifi c competencies.Generic competencies seem to be more important to respondents.Such evaluation is expected since mentioned competencies are more important in terms of changing the working environment and jobs.It was similarl also to other research (ie., Manly, McKnight and Thomas, 2008;Lowden et al., 2011;NCVER, 2003).A logical explanation for the low assessed competencies related to foreign language activities is that the majority of respondents come from organizations that mostly do business with 'domestic' customers and rarely with customers abroad.In addition to other studies (Civil Services Human Resources, 2015; American Public Health Association, 2001; Lee, 2008), the presented results showed that some specifi c knowledge is more important for undergraduate studies (competencies needed for practice, PA operation and legal acts) compared to graduate studies (economics, HR management, policy-making).At the same time, there are some competencies that are statistically diff erent and more important for higher positions (analytical and strategic thinking, ethical decision making, and evaluation capabilities).
Tuning-PA (Reichard, and van der Krogt, 2014) also highlights the importance of generic competencies.However, it is true that Tuning-PA competencies have been assessed worse than most other generic competencies analyzed in this project.The fi ndings can also be reasonably linked to the Workforce Planning Resource Guide of Public Sector Human Resource Professionals (IPMA-HR, 2005), which defi nes competencies as 'sets of behaviors (encompassing skills, knowledge, abilities and personal att ributes) that, taken together, are critical to accomplishing successful work and achieving an organizational strategy'.In their model, they defi ne the functional level, which means that competencies cascade from the core competencies and are associated with specifi c work functions or business units.According to the results, it would be interesting to check whether this would be confi rmed by further analysis of the specifi c competencies of individual subjects.

Conclusion
The study results are interesting for several reasons.First of all, because a set of competencies (or knowledge, skills and desirable behaviors) was created from com-petencies that (1) emphatically emphasize theoretical contributions, from the results of previous projects and from 'professional' accreditation associations, (2) are listed in the study programs of renowned universities, and (3) are exposed to concrete working practice.Altogether more than 1,600 perceived competencies were detected.By analyzing the above set of competencies, a lot of substantive coherence was identifi ed among individual competencies, therefore it was possible to perform a certain unifi cation.The result is that 61 competencies link 'theory' and 'practice' in the area of education or functioning in administration.The list includes competencies that are summarized from those jobs that require an undergraduate or graduate study degree in the fi eld of public administration.The study, therefore, demonstrates the development of the necessary competencies for education in the fi eld of administrative sciences.The results show a signifi cant match in the ranks of competencies studied and the importance of generic competencies.Along with other research, in our study, general competencies seem to be more important than specifi c ones.
Based on the expected 'standardization' of knowledge (competencies) that arises from the accreditation criteria and international standards (mainly from the two most important accreditation institutions for the fi eld of public administration education, the EAPAA and NASPAA), a set of competencies is used in diff erent environments.However, even though a set of competencies has been expanded with competencies from our preliminary study, similar research should also be carried out in other countries.On the basis of the results obtained, potential diff erences in employers' views could be identifi ed (their assessment of which competence would be appropriate to develop in the public administration study programs for undergraduate and graduate students).A comparison between countries would show potential diff erences in desirable competencies.In this way, the adequacy of the defi nition of the competencies required in the study programs by (accredited) accreditation organizations could also be checked.All these would encourage an even greater need to use competence-based learning in study programs.
written and spoken communication in the mother tongue Is able to provide detailed feedback to supervisor, other employees and clients Does not take advantage of his/her for person gain Is respect to his/her associates Is able to act ethicaly and make ethical decisions Is able to work accordanc with the autorisations given

Table 1 :
The highest and lowest ranked average assessments of competencies

Table 2 :
Mann-Whitney U test results